How do you make a programming language?

Without going into the philosophical details of "creating" a language (is a language "invented", or is it an abstract concept that always exists and is "discovered?"), I'm going to give a brief, high-level review of how a programming language interpreter is created. It's actually pretty simple to create a simple interpreter. There are two main steps: parsing and evaluating.

1. Parsing is the process of reading the text in a code file and breaking it down into expressions for your interpreter to evaluate. For example, a Scotch code file is read and deciphered into Haskell data structures: 1 + 2 + 3 becomes Add (Add (NumInt 1) (NumInt 2)) (NumInt 3), where "Add (expression) (expression)" symbolizes addition and "NumInt (number)" represents an integer.


Parsing is rather complicated, but it's made much easier if you take advantage of some of the existing libraries - I use Parsec, one of the most popular parser combinator libraries. Parsing can also be very slow. To solve this problem, when I parse a code file, I save a binary representation of the result in a new file; I only re-parse if there have been changes to the file.


2. Evaluating means breaking an expression tree down until you're left with a meaningful result. The expression above can be represented as a tree like this:


     +
   +   3
  1 2


The most top level expression is addition of an expression and 3. Before I can evaluate this, I need to evaluate the second addition expression, 1 + 2, which can be evaluated to 3. My tree is now simpler:


     +
    3 3


This can be fully evaluated to 6 and the result can be returned.




Finally, there's a process known as "bootstrapping" in which a programming language becomes "self-hosting." Scotch is not self-hosting, because it's implemented in another language, Haskell. Many popular languages (Python, Ruby) are implemented on top of another language, which is often C. Haskell is an example of a self-hosting language, because it's actually implemented in Haskell. There can be performance benefits to self-hosting languages, but it seems at first to present a kind of chicken-and-egg problem. So, how does a language become self-hosting?

1. First, an interpreter is created, using some existing language.
2. A compiler for the new language is written in the new language itself.
3. The interpreter is used to run the compiler on itself, effectively compiling itself.

You now have a compiled program that can compile other programs, free of any intermediate language.

If you want to explore the technical details of programming language implementation, feel free to browse the Scotch source code, which is available under the GNU General Public License.

Science Denial

Vaccination, global warming...why do we have such a pervasive culture of distrusting scientists?

That's not to say that you should blindly accept anything. But when smart people who study something for a living all agree about something (say, that there's no link between autism and vaccination) and you can analyze the data yourself and it clearly points to the same conclusions (like a study of 537,000 Danish children that showed no difference in autism rates between vaccinated and unvaccinated children...) I just don't understand the arrogance it must take for someone to ignore that and think they somehow know better, based on the word of some politician or celebrity. We have outbreaks in Utah of both pertussis and measles because people think they know better than doctors and scientists.

I guess Galileo would argue that this isn't a new problem, though.